Fire is the rapid oxidation Redox describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. This can be either a simple redox process such as the oxidation of carbon to yield carbon dioxide or the reduction of carbon by hydrogen to yield methane (CH4), or it can be a complex process such as the oxidation of sugar in the human body of a combustible Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames, appearance of light flickering material releasing heat A related term is thermal energy, loosely defined as the energy of a body that increases with its temperature. Heat is also loosely referred to as thermal energy, although many definitions require this thermal energy to actually be in the process of movement between one body and another to be technically called heat . Heat is also known as ", light Light is electromagnetic radiation, particularly radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye , or perhaps 380–750 nm. In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not, and various reaction A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of chemical substances. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have properties different from the products A product is a substance that forms as a result of a biological- or chemical reaction. While the end product of some chemical reactions may be the result of a relatively rapid reaction, nanoseconds to seconds, chemical equilibria in complex systems may require years or even centuries to be established. For example, equilibria in groundwater such as carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state and water Water is a ubiquitous chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of life.[citation needed] In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor or steam. Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. On Earth, it is found mostly in.[1] If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma In physics and chemistry, plasma is a partially ionized gas, in which a certain proportion of electrons are free rather than being bound to an atom or molecule. The ability of the positive and negative charges to move somewhat independently makes the plasma electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields. Plasma.[2] Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color Color or colour is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories called red, yellow, blue and others. Color derives from the spectrum of light (distribution of light energy versus wavelength) interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors. Color categories and physical specifications of of the flame A flame is the visible part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic reaction (for example, combustion, a self-sustaining oxidation reaction) taking place in a thin zone. If a fire is hot enough to ionize the gaseous components, it can become a plasma and the fire's intensity In physics, intensity is a measure of the time-averaged energy flux. The word "intensity" here is not synonymous with "strength", "amplitude", or "level", as it sometimes is in colloquial speech. For example, "the intensity of pressure" is meaningless, since the parameters of those variables do not might vary. Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration Conflagration is an uncontrolled burning that threatens human life, health, property or ecology. A conflagration can be accidental or intentionally created . Arson can be accomplished for the purpose of sabotage, diversion, and also can be the consequence of pyromania. During conflagration the property is destroyed by fire. Sometimes the, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames, appearance of light flickering.

Contents

Chemistry

Chemical reaction

The fire tetrahedron A tetrahedron is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, three of which meet at each vertex. A regular tetrahedron is one in which the four triangles are regular, or "equilateral", and is one of the Platonic solids

Fires start when a flammable and/or a combustible material with an adequate supply of oxygen Oxygen (pronounced /ˈɒksɨdʒɨn/, from the Greek roots ὀξύς (acid, literally "sharp," from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter) is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table, and is a highly reactive or another oxidizer is subjected to enough heat A related term is thermal energy, loosely defined as the energy of a body that increases with its temperature. Heat is also loosely referred to as thermal energy, although many definitions require this thermal energy to actually be in the process of movement between one body and another to be technically called heat . Heat is also known as " and is able to sustain a chain reaction A chain reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place. In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events. Examples of chain reactions include:. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements being in place (though as previously stated, another strong oxidizer can replace oxygen).

Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.

Fire can be extinguished Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of fires. It involves the study of the behaviour, compartmentalisation, suppression and investigation of fire and its related emergencies, as well as the research and development, production, testing and application of mitigating systems. In structures, be they land-based, by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. Fire extinguishing by the application of water acts by removing heat from the fuel faster than combustion generates it. Application of carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state is intended primarily to starve the fire of oxygen. A forest fire may be fought by starting smaller fires in advance of the main blaze, to deprive it of fuel. Other gaseous fire suppression agents, such as halon It was introduced as an effective gaseous fire suppression agent in the 1960s, and was used around valuable materials, such as aircraft, mainframe computers, and telecommunication switching centers, usually in total flooding systems. It was also widely used in the maritime industry to add a third level of protection should the main and emergency or HFC-227 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane, also called heptafluoropropane, HFC-227 or HFC-227ea , is a colourless odourless gaseous halocarbon. It is commonly used as a gaseous fire suppression agent, interfere with the chemical reaction itself.

Flame

Main article: Flame A flame is the visible part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic reaction (for example, combustion, a self-sustaining oxidation reaction) taking place in a thin zone. If a fire is hot enough to ionize the gaseous components, it can become a plasma A candle A candle is a source of light, and sometimes a source of heat, consisting of a solid block of fuel and an embedded wick's flame A flame is the visible part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic reaction (for example, combustion, a self-sustaining oxidation reaction) taking place in a thin zone. If a fire is hot enough to ionize the gaseous components, it can become a plasma

A flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible and infrared Infrared radiation is electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is longer than that of visible light (400-700 nm), but shorter than that of terahertz radiation (100 µm - 1 mm) and microwaves (~30,000 µm). Infrared radiation spans roughly three orders of magnitude (750 nm and 100 µm) light, the frequency spectrum A source of light can have many colors mixed together and in different amounts . A rainbow, or prism, sends the different frequencies in different directions, making them individually visible at different angles. A graph of the intensity plotted against the frequency (showing the amount of each color) is the frequency spectrum of the light. When of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning material and intermediate reaction products. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter Organic matter is matter that has come from a once-living organism; is capable of decay, or the product of decay; or is composed of organic compounds. The definition of organic matter varies upon the subject it is being used for, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames, appearance of light flickering of gas, incandescent The incandescence of a theoretically perfectly black object is known as black body radiation, which is described by relatively simple mathematical equations. For a black body, the distribution of energy emissions across the electromagnetic spectrum is described by Planck's law. The total power emitted by radiation from a black body is given by the solid particles called soot Soot is a general term that refers to impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon. It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolyzed fuel particles such as cenospheres, charred wood, petroleum coke, etc. that may become produce the familiar red-orange glow of 'fire'. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. With an atomic weight of 1.00794 u, hydrogen is the lightest element burning in chlorine Chlorine (pronounced /ˈklɔərin/, from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' , is the chemical element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl. It is a halogen, found in the periodic table in group 17 (formerly VII, VIIa, or VIIb). As the chloride ion, which is part of common salt and other compounds, it is abundant in nature and necessary to most forms of also produces a flame, producing hydrogen chloride The compound hydrogen chloride has the formula H (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many more, are fluorine Fluorine is a chemical element, represented by the symbol F, and the atomic number 9. Fluorine forms a single bond with itself in elemental form, resulting in the diatomic F2 molecule. F2 is a supremely reactive, poisonous, pale, yellowish brown gas. Elemental fluorine is the most chemically reactive and electronegative of all the elements. For and hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. With an atomic weight of 1.00794 u, hydrogen is the lightest element, and hydrazine Hydrazine is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula N2H4. It is a colourless liquid with an ammonia-like odor and is derived from the same industrial chemistry processes that manufacture ammonia. However, hydrazine has physical properties that are more similar to those of water and nitrogen tetroxide Dinitrogen tetroxide is the chemical compound N2O4. It forms an equilibrium mixture with nitrogen dioxide; some call this mixture dinitrogen tetroxide, some call it nitrogen dioxide. Dinitrogen tetroxide is a powerful oxidizer, highly toxic and corrosive. N2O4 is hypergolic with various forms of hydrazine, i.e., they burn on contact without a.

The glow of a flame is complex. Black-body radiation In physics, a black body is an idealized object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation that falls on it. No electromagnetic radiation passes through it and none is reflected. Because no light is reflected or transmitted, the object appears black when it is cold. However, a black body emits a temperature-dependent spectrum of light. This is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon In physics, a photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field and the basic "unit" of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is also the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. The effects of this force are easily observable at both the microscopic and macroscopic level, because the emission by de-excited atoms The atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of a dense, central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons . The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain and molecules In chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable, electrically neutral group of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by very strong chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from polyatomic ions in this strict sense. In organic chemistry and biochemistry, the term molecule is used less strictly and also is in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared Infrared radiation is electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is longer than that of visible light (400-700 nm), but shorter than that of terahertz radiation (100 µm - 1 mm) and microwaves (~30,000 µm). Infrared radiation spans roughly three orders of magnitude (750 nm and 100 µm) bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for the emission spectra The emission spectrum of an element or compound is the relative intensity of electromagnetic radiation of each frequency emitted by atoms or molecules of that element or compound when they are excited. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, the fire is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program. NASA was established on July 29, 1958, by the National Aeronautics and Space Act (NASA) of the United States The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the has recently found that gravity Gravitation is a natural phenomenon by which objects with mass attract one another. In everyday life, gravitation is most commonly thought of as the agency which lends weight to objects with mass. Gravitation compels dispersed matter to coalesce, thus it accounts for the very existence of the Earth, the Sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in plays a role. Modifying the gravity causes different flame types.[3] The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection Convection in the most general terms refers to the movement of molecules within fluids . Convection is one of the major modes of heat transfer and mass transfer. In fluids, convective heat and mass transfer take place through both diffusion – the random Brownian motion of individual particles in the fluid – and by advection, in which matter or, as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, as in a candle A candle is a source of light, and sometimes a source of heat, consisting of a solid block of fuel and an embedded wick in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In micro gravity or zero gravity Weightlessness is a phenomenon experienced by people during free-fall. Although the term zero gravity is often used as a synonym, weightlessness in orbit is not the result of the force of gravity being eliminated or even significantly reduced . Weightlessness typically occurs when an object or person is falling freely, in orbit, in deep space (far, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it may go out if not moved steadily, as the CO2 from combustion does not disperse as readily in micro gravity, and tends to smother the flame). There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is evenly distributed enough that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs.[4] Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in micro gravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in micro gravity when compared to normal gravity conditions.[5] These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.

In combustion engines, various steps are taken to eliminate a flame. The method depends mainly on whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a high-energy fuel such as jet fuel.

Typical temperatures of fires and flames

Temperatures of flames by appearance

The temperature of flames with carbon particles emitting light can be assessed by their color:[9]

Fossil record

Main article: Fossil record of fire

The fossil record of fire first appears with the establishment of a land-based flora in the Middle Ordovician period, 470 million years ago,[10] permitting the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere as never before, as the new hordes of land plants pumped it out as a waste product. When this concentration rose above 13%, it permitted the possibility of wildfire. Wildfire is first recorded in the Late Silurian fossil record, 420 million years ago, by fossils of charcoalified plants.[11] Apart from a controversial gap in the Late Devonian, charcoal is present ever since.[11] The level of atmospheric oxygen is closely related to the prevalence of charcoal: clearly oxygen is the key factor in the abundance of wildfire.[12] Fire also became more abundant when grasses radiated and became the dominant component of many ecosystems, around 6 to 7 million years ago;[13] this kindling provided tinder which allowed for the more rapid spread of fire.[12] These widespread fires may have initiated a positive feedback process, whereby they produced a warmer, drier climate more conducive to fire.[12]

Human control

Main article: Control of fire by early humans The fire miracle of Saint Peter Martyr by Antonio Vivarini.

The ability to control fire was a major change in the habits of early humans. Making fire to generate heat and light made it possible for people to cook food, increasing the variety and availability of nutrients. The heat produced would also help people stay warm in cold weather, enabling them to live in cooler climates. Fire also kept nocturnal predators at bay. Evidence of cooked food is found from 1.9 million years ago, although fire was probably not used in a controlled fashion until 400,000 years ago.[12] Evidence becomes widespread around 50 to 100 thousand years ago, suggesting regular use from this time; interestingly, resistance to air pollution started to evolve in human populations at a similar point in time.[12] The use of fire became progressively more sophisticated, with it being used to create charcoal and to control wildlife from 'tens of thousands' of years ago.[12]

By the Neolithic Revolution, during the introduction of grain-based agriculture, people all over the world used fire as a tool in landscape management. These fires were typically controlled burns or "cool fires", as opposed to uncontrolled "hot fires" which damage the soil. Hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities. This is especially a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and fall. They clear undergrowth, burning up biomass that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable.

The first technical application of the fire may have been the extracting and treating of metals. There are numerous modern applications of fire. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Users of internal combustion vehicles employ fire every time they drive. Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity.

The use of fire in warfare has a long history. Hunter-gatherer groups around the world have been noted as using grass and forest fires to injure their enemies and destroy their ability to find food, so it can be assumed that fire has been used in warfare for as long as humans have had the knowledge to control it. Fire was the basis of all early thermal weapons. Homer detailed the use of fire by Greek commandos who hid in a wooden horse to burn Troy during the Trojan war. Later the Byzantine fleet used Greek fire to attack ships and men. In the First World War, the first modern flamethrowers were used by infantry, and were successfully mounted on armoured vehicles in the Second World War. In the latter war, incendiary bombs were used by Axis and Allies alike, notably on Rotterdam, London, Hamburg and, notoriously, at Dresden, in the latter two cases firestorms were deliberately caused in which a ring of fire surrounding each city was drawn inward by an updraft caused by a central cluster of fires. The United States Army Air Force also extensively used incendiaries against Japanese targets in the latter months of the war, devastating entire cities constructed primarily of wood and paper houses. In the Second World War, the use of napalm and molotov cocktails was popularized, though the former did not gain public attention until the Vietnam War. More recently many villages were burned during the Rwandan Genocide.

Fire fuel

A coal-fired power station in the People's Republic of China

Setting fuel aflame releases usable energy. Wood was a prehistoric fuel, and is still viable today. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas and coal, in power plants supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity today; the International Energy Agency states that nearly 80% of the world's power comes from these sources.[14] The fire in a power station is used to heat water, creating steam that drives turbines. The turbines then spin an electric generator to produce electricity.

The unburnable solid remains of a combustible material left after a fire is called clinker if its melting point is below the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, and ash if its melting point is above the flame temperature.

Fire protection and prevention

Main articles: Fire protection and Wildfire#Prevention A structure fire

Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires. Trained firefighters use Fire apparatus, water supply resources such as water mains and fire hydrants or they might use A and B class foam depending on what is feeding the fire.

Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition, and is partially focused on programs to educate people from starting fires.[15] Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a criminal offense in most jurisdictions.

Model building codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to minimize damage resulting from a fire. The most common form of active fire protection is fire sprinklers. To maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and furnishings in most developed countries are tested for fire-resistance, combustibility and flammability. Upholstery, carpeting and plastics used in vehicles and vessels are also tested.

See also

Fire portal

Citations

  1. ^ Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology, National Wildfire Coordinating Group, November 2008, http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/glossary/pms205.pdf, retrieved on 2008-12-18
  2. ^ Helmenstine, Anne Marie, What is the State of Matter of Fire or Flame? Is it a Liquid, Solid, or Gas?, About.com, http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistryfaqs/f/firechemistry.htm, retrieved on 2009-1-21
  3. ^ Spiral flames in microgravity, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2000.
  4. ^ CFM-1 experiment results, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.
  5. ^ LSP-1 experiment results, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.
  6. ^ ""Flame Temperature Measurement"". http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PFLDAS000009000008001577000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes.
  7. ^ ""Flame Temperatures"". http://www.derose.net/steve/resources/engtables/flametemp.html.
  8. ^ ""Pyropen Cordless Soldering Irons"" (PDF). http://www.cooperhandtools.com/europe/sales_literature/documents/WellerPyropen_GB.pdf.
  9. ^ "A Book of Steam for Engineers", The Stirling Company, 1905
  10. ^ Wellman, C.H., Gray, J. (2000). "The microfossil record of early land plants". Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 355 (1398): 717–732. doi:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/355/1398/717.
  11. ^ a b Scott, Ac; Glasspool, Ij (Jul 2006). "The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration" (Free full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 (29): 10861–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604090103. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 16832054. PMC: 1544139. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16832054.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Bowman, D. M. J. S. (2009). "Fire in the Earth System". Science 324: 481. doi:10.1126/science.1163886.
  13. ^ Retallack, G.J. (1997). "Neogene Expansion of the North American Prairie". Palaios 12 (4): 380–390. doi:10.2307/3515337. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0883-1351(199708)12%3A4%3C380%3ANEOTNA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q. Retrieved on 2008-02-11.
  14. ^ ""Share of Total Primary Energy Supply", 2002; International Energy Agency". http://www.iea.org/statlist/index.htm.
  15. ^ Fire & Life Safety Education, Manitoba Office of the Fire Commissioner

References

External links

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